These notes provide a thorough understanding of the nature, origin, structure, purpose, and development of language from various perspectives, as outlined by the Bhutan Council for School Examinations and Assessment (BCSEA).
1. What is Language? Language is a method of communication that allows humans to express feelings, ideas, and thoughts through spoken, written, or gestured symbols. It is a structured system involving lexemes (words) and rules (grammar) to convey meaning. Language plays a crucial role in achieving our wants by translating our ideas into action through communication.
Key Points:
A system of symbols governed by grammatical rules
Enables communication between individuals
Expresses ideas, emotions, and intentions
A basic human need and urge
Utilises conventional signs and symbols
2. The Communication Model Communication involves a process:
Encoding: Converting ideas into messages
Transmission: Sending the message to the receiver
Reception: The message is received by the intended individual
Decoding: The receiver interprets or understands the message
3. Etymology Etymology refers to the origin and historical development of words. It traces how a word evolved from its original form and how it entered the English language.
Key Aspects:
Traces the linguistic history of words
Shows the evolution from ancestral languages
Identifies related words across languages
Helps understand changes in form and meaning over time
4. Origins of New Words
a. Borrowing: English has absorbed words from over 120 languages, especially Latin, Greek, and other European and global languages due to historical events like colonisation and exploration.
b. Clipping: Parts of words are removed to form shorter versions, e.g.:
Back-clipping: examination → exam
Fore-clipping: telephone → phone
Both ends: influenza → flu
c. Back-Formation: New words formed by removing supposed affixes, e.g.:
cherise → cherry
enthusiasm → enthuse
d. Blends: Words formed by merging parts of two or more words, e.g.:
breakfast + lunch → brunch
smoke + fog → smog
e. Transfer of Names: Names of people or places becoming common words:
Forsythia (from William Forsyth)
Silhouette (Etienne de’ Silhouette)
Denim (from Serge de Nîmes)
f. Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds:
buzz, hiss, pop, whiz, guffaw
5. Language Acquisition in Children
Children acquire language rapidly, beyond simple imitation
They often make grammatical errors showing internal rule application (e.g., “hitted” instead of “hit”)
Children develop language even without consistent adult correction
Development stages are universal across cultures
Deaf children often invent sign systems, showing natural structure
6. Shared Properties of Human Language
Thousands of human languages exist with shared features
Yet, each language has exceptions
No strict boundary between a dialect and a language (Max Weinreich: “a language is a dialect with an army and a navy”)
7. Purposes of Language
I. For Interpersonal Communication
Expressing personal experiences and emotions
Making judgements
Developing and expressing arguments
Agreeing or disagreeing with ideas
II. For Learning
Gaining new perspectives
Making abstract ideas tangible
Exploring possibilities
Reflecting on and refining ideas
Asking questions
Engaging with own and others’ work
III. For Entertainment
Enjoying language aesthetics
Appreciating spoken word art
Stimulating creativity and imagination
8. Features of Language
a. Duality of Patterning: Language works on two levels:
Discrete sounds (e.g., /n/, /b/, /t/)
Combined to create meaningful words and sentences
b. Displacement:
Language can describe things not present in time or space
Unique to humans (e.g., describing past events or future plans)
c. Open-Endedness (Creativity):
Infinite expressions can be formed from finite vocabulary
Allows for novel or fictional ideas
d. Arbitrariness:
No inherent connection between a word and its meaning
Words are assigned meaning by social convention
e. Cultural Transmission:
Language is learned through social interaction, not inherited
Children must be exposed to a language to acquire it
f. Metalinguistic Function:
Language can describe and analyse itself
Enables reflection and understanding of language systems
g. Language as a System:
Highly organised, not random
Each unit (sound, word) has a role and relation to others
h. Individual and Social Nature:
Fulfils personal expression needs
Connects individuals to society and shared meaning
i. Species-Specific and Uniform:
Unique to humans
All humans have the potential to learn the language of their environment
9. Origin of Language
a. Divine Source Theory:
Rooted in religious texts, e.g., Adam named creatures in Genesis
Suggests language was gifted by a divine power
Discredited through historical experiments with isolated children
b. Evolutionary Development:
Language is seen as evolving over time
Many theories exist, but exact origins are still unknown
10. Theories of Language Acquisition
a. Behaviouristic Theory (B.F. Skinner):
Language is learned via environmental stimuli, imitation, and reinforcement
Children associate sounds with objects and mimic adult language
Criticism: Cannot fully explain creative use and errors by children
b. Rationalistic Theory (Noam Chomsky):
Children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Language ability is innate and biologically driven
Universal Grammar theory: all languages share a common structural basis
Children naturally acquire language when exposed to it